By the end of 1941, Heatley starts working at Merck. He quite regularly exchanges letters with Florey. And Florey receives an enormous box from the United States. He is sure that it will contain the long-awaited kilo of penicillin. But … Read more
Because of war conditions, Florey doesn’t succeed in securing more money or means for his project of scaling up penicillin production. He thinks that for the time being, having one kilo at hand would satisfy all his needs. He will … Read more
Often, because of shortages of penicillin, the Oxford team has to suspend or modify its animal tests or clinical programs. Shortages not always overcome by penicillin recovered from urine. War conditions force them to improvise a lot. Much transportation is … Read more
In April and May 1940, the Oxford team tests its brown powder on cats, rabbits, rats, mice and other animals. The animals stay healthy. They also discover that injection is the best way of administering the drug. If it is … Read more
Four major questions dominated the Oxford research on penicillin. We review them in good order. 1. How do we grow as much mould as possible, while maximizing penicillin production? 2. Which harmful bacteria will be attacked by penicillin? 3. Are … Read more
Eventually, a team of Oxford University succeeds in the production and purification of penicillin. But a strange team it is; it never grows into some kind of unity. It consists of Ernst Chain, Howard Florey, Norman Heatley, Margaret Jennings and … Read more
The metaphor of a football game befits our theme. Football is war, isn’t it? Project ‘100 years of antibiotics’ Episode 14. Riddles and coincidence Episode 15. Historic antibiotic agents Episode 16. The Sulfas have the upper hand Episode 17. The … Read more
What then caused the penicillin mould to arrive in Alexander Fleming’s petri dish? And why were conditions exactly right at that moment for killing the staphylococci? Even today we don’t have clear answers to those questions. One of the causes … Read more
The story of the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming is well-known. On returning from a holiday on September 3, 1928, he remarks that in a petri dish with a bacterial culture (staphylococci) there is an area without any bacterial … Read more
The title of our last episode (Pride comes before a fall) may not do justice to the major importance of the sulfas for the further development of medicinal chemistry. In fact, the sulfas mark the start of a new era … Read more
Both the UK and the US greet M&B 693 or sulfapyridine with much enthusiasm. In the war years, this message about the sulfas is a much-needed piece of good news. Project ‘100 years of antibiotics’ Episode 9. In the crossfire … Read more
In 1937 already, the medical profession in the United Kingdom, France and the United States recognizes the major importance of the sulfanilamide and the other sulfas; for different reasons in each country. Project ‘100 years of antibiotics’ Episode 8. The … Read more
We haven’t yet told the whole story about the sulfas in Germany during WW II. For further reading we recommend the book by John E. Lesch, already referred to: The First Miracle Drugs, How the sulfa drugs transformed medicine. In … Read more
After Prontosil, the sulfas make a breakthrough. The success really takes off in WW II, in particular in the forces of Germany and its allies. But the success has a major black rim. IG Farben is not just a major … Read more
According to one version of the history of Aspirin, German chemist Felix Hoffmann who works with Bayer, has it all sorted out in 1897. Felix is 29 years old. As the story goes, his father suffers from arthritis and after … Read more
In the column ‘There is no such thing as an individual’ we mentioned the influence of the microorganisms in our bodies on our development. But biologists have already gone much further along this path. Our microbiome, the living guests in … Read more
The success of Salvarsan leads Paul Ehrlich to believe that he will quickly be able to eliminate many other pathogens. In 1914, he addresses the 7th International Medical Congress in London. In paraphrase he says: ‘All countries in the world … Read more
Many of our readers will know the prominent role played by Germany in the development and the many applications of synthetic dyes. They will also know the name of Justus von Liebig, the ‘founding father’ of coal tar research. This … Read more
In 1913, Hugh Hampton Young returns to the US from the international medical conference in London, deeply impressed by Paul Ehrlich’s chemotherapy. Young works as a surgeon at the Brady urological institute of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. Following Ehrlich’s … Read more
In 1890, Robert Koch appoints Paul Ehrlich his assistant. Although Ehrlich (1854-1915) is above all a medical doctor (together with Emil Adolf von Behring he develops a vaccine against diphtheria), he is primarily fascinated by chemistry. Project ‘100 years of … Read more
In long-term conflicts, often we can hardly tell when they started, or what their origin was. And who played what part? Often, the beholder is the judge of the answer; or the latter depends on the moment of reflection on … Read more
As soon as World War I had ended, research on infections soared. There was pressure to come up with results, much pressure. Bacterial infections had been responsible for most casualties in the muddy trenches. In the previous decades, researchers had … Read more
Modern biologists are waging a fierce debate on the meaning of the concept of the individual. Definitions of well-known phenomena like symbiosis and parasitism need to be rephrased. The debate goes beyond the world of plants and micro-organisms; the subject … Read more
This book is what a review should be all about: lengthy (365 pg), thorough, several tables and hundreds of references. Overall, this is a complete book on a highly relevant topic. Biostimulants: natural substances supporting vegetative growth, uptake of nutrients, … Read more
By the end of 2019, both USA and EU became aware of their dependence on China and India in generic medicines supply. Particularly the dependence on China was judged to be worrisome, as their share doubled to 13% in ten … Read more
The major pharmaceutical industry is going through a difficult time. Industry should find a new track. Biomedicines could open up a new chapter. This is the third of four articles on the pharmaceutical industry. Biomedicines, yes or no? For over … Read more
The major pharmaceutical industry (big pharma) is going through a difficult time. Industry needs to come on track again. Can the new superpowers India and China lead the way? This is the second of four articles on the pharmaceutical industry. … Read more
Major pharmaceutical companies (big pharma) are having a difficult time. Shareholders complain about falling profit margins; governments, insurance companies and patients complain about sky-high medicine prices. Industry should find a new direction – but which one? This is the first … Read more
Will the corona pandemic speed up the energy transition? The question is much debated. Those who would like to accelerate the transition seem to have the upper hand, if we can judge by the headlines of the news. Fine particulate … Read more
Resistance to antibiotics is a growing problem; and yet, the development of new antibiotics stagnates. Why? Don’t we need new antibiotics, on second thoughts? Or does industry judge that new developments will not earn them enough money? New antibiotics from … Read more
Reductionism, reducing issues to little fragments, is at the basis of our present wealth. It also has a major influence on our social behaviour and our worldview. This may take us quite a distance, but we may also lose the … Read more
The quest for engineering life is an infinite ‘marketplace’ for science, commerce and society. They are the very stakeholders that will have to decide on the rules of the game: responsibility and control. An almost impossible task, but one that … Read more
Modern history is full of stories of new chemicals sold on a large scale and afterwards causing problems. Sometimes, this causes a major upheaval. But by far the largest poisoning in history, that by tetraethyl lead, never ended in a … Read more
In four earlier articles we came to the conclusion that geopolitics of fossil, mineral and agricultural resources will become less important. But a new geopolitical dimension quickly rises to the forefront: geopolitics of information. Information becomes less reliable. People create … Read more
In a first article, we proposed that plastic waste should no longer exist in ten to fifteen years from now. This ambitious goal needs to be tackled from two sides: plastics design on the input side, and dedicated processing on … Read more
Can food supply and access to clean water develop into geopolitical weapons, like fossil energy has been for many years? If so, we should see a structural imbalance between food and water on the one hand, and population on the … Read more
For us, April 21st was a day to remember. A month ahead of schedule we presented our new book: More with Less, welcome to the Precision Economy. The scene was a conference in Groningen where the latest results of modern … Read more
The term bioplastics causes much confusion and will continue to do so, according to my conviction. The public does not seem to grasp the difference between bio as in biobased and bio as in biodegradable. As the plastic soup problem … Read more
In many discussions on sustainable energy, energy storage is a controversial issue. Particularly non-experts use the lack of simple storage technologies as an unanswerable remark: all nice and well, sustainable energy, but as long as a day without sunshine leaves … Read more
Many social scientists make an appeal to fundamental laws of nature in order to sustain their arguments. Fine, if their interpretation is tenable from a scientific point of view. But often, this is not the case. Economists tend to look … Read more
Green chemistry is threatened both from without and within. In the heydays of classical organic chemistry, in a way many researchers overestimated their powers: they could synthesise anything, even from the drawing board, and better than nature. That overconfidence has … Read more
A decade ago, in an authoritative scientific magazine, we published a prediction (1) on the synthesis of complicated molecules, primarily medicines. We foresaw the integration of chemo and bio catalysis in a reactor that would also be the catalyst. A … Read more
So far, the laws of marketing have been insufficiently dealt with in our articles on biotechnologically produced food, and consumer reaction to it. In marketing, all revolves around a very old principle: how do I position my product on the … Read more
Public judgement surprises biotechnological researchers again and again. Sometimes it is surprisingly favourable, like in the case of the development of artemisinin, an anti-malarial drug, using modified organisms. Often it is unfavourable, like when public judgement was squarely negative on … Read more
The problem surfaces everywhere: how to organise successful R&D in a cooperation between research institutes and businesses. Two worlds with very different cultures. Each with their proper rules and their proper criteria for success. Freedom to publish in the world … Read more
Some communities declare themselves ‘shale gas free’. Pure symbolism. They know very well that they do not have a say in this. Apparently, they have the (naïve) idea that such a declaration will prevent environmental problems from shale gas recovery, … Read more
Our planet’s temperature rises. There is ample proof for that. CO2 emissions are the main reason, we know that for sure as well. We cannot deny that our wealth and craving for energy have caused this. But we can hardly … Read more
Renewable sources cannot cover more than 30% of our energy demand within the next 25 years. A clear-cut strategy for continued deployment of fossil energy sources is unavoidable in which fruitful competition and a level playing field for all commercial … Read more
In part 1 we have shown the potential of biomass. We will now deal with sun and water as sources of renewable energy. We will give an estimate of the maximum contribution of renewables. Solar and wind energy together could … Read more
After a few decades of research and development a halfway score is meaningful and, on headlines, very well feasible. For various reasons wind and biomass are showing their limits. Solar energy still has a big upward potential. Other sustainable sources … Read more